Geographical Conditions of Arabia during Advent of Islam

Question: What were the Geographical Conditions of Arabia at the advent of Islam?

Answer:

Introduction: Saudi Arabia monarchy in south western Asia, occupying most of the Arabian Peninsula. Saudi Arabia is a land of vast deserts and little rainfall. Huge deposits of oil and natural gas lie beneath the country’s surface. Saudi Arabia was a relatively poor nation before the discover and exploitation of oil, but since the 1950s income from oil has made the country wealthy. The religion of Islam developed in the 7^th by Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, and it has been ruled by his descendants ever since.

Saudi Arabia is bounded on the north by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait; on the east by the Persian Gulf and Qatar; on the south east by the United Arab Emirates and Oman; on the border with the United Arab Emirates is not precisely defined. Saudi Arabia has an area of about 2,240,000 sq km (about 864,900 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Riyadh.

Geography: The Arabian Peninsula is essentially a huge, tilted block of rock, highest in the west and sloping gradually down to the east. Most of this slab of rock is covered with the sand of several large deserts. Saudi Arabia’s landscape also contains mountain ranges, flat coastal plains, and the rocky remains of hardened lava flows. The country’s climate is hot and dry, and there are no permanent rivers or lakes. Saudi Arabia can be divided into four natural regions. These are the mountainous western highlands; the rocky central plateau; the more fertile, eastern low-lying coastal plain; and the sandy desert areas of the north, east, and south. A string of mountain ranges stretches along the western edge of Saudi Arabia. The northern segment of these highlands, known as Al Hijaz (Hejaz), has a general elevation of 600 to 9000 m (2,000 to 3,000 ft), with some mountains exceeding 2,000 m (6,500 ft). Rainfall here is infrequent, but streams flowing down the west side of the highlands allow limited agriculture in valleys and on the narrow coastal plain. On the fields of dark-coloured, broken basaltic stone known as harras. South of Al Hijaz the highlands continue into the region known as ‘Asir. Here, the highlands are rugged and reach considerably higher elevations than in Al Hijaz: Much of ‘Asir lies between 1,500 and 2,000 m (5,000 and 7,000 ft). The highest point in Saudi Arabia, Jabal Sawda’ (3,207 m 10,522 ft), is located in this region, near the border with Yemen. ‘Asir receives more rainfall than Al Hijaz, allowing more widespread farming.

Considerably more than half the area of Saudi Arabia is desert. Some desert areas are covered with shifting sand dunes, while others are more stable flat or rippled expanses of sand. Shaped and moved by winds, sand dunes take the form of long ridges or tall hills. Sand, gravel, or bare rock basins lie between the dunes. Few plants grow in these arid deserts, except in scattered oases supported by springs or wells. Three large deserts lie on three sides of the country’s central plateau: An Nafud to the north, the Rub’ al Khali to the south, and the narrow Ad Dahna’ connecting these two on the east. The Rub’ al Khali, one of the largest deserts in the world, has an area of about 650,000 sq km (about 250,000 sq mi), nearly as large as the U.S. state of Texas.

An Nafud is characterized by parallel sand ridges, most 6 to 15 m (20 to 50 ft) high, but some sand hills rise as high as 30 m (100 ft). In some areas, wind has stripped the bedrock surface clean of loose material.

Summary of health is wealth

One day Kashif went for shopping with his mother. As he was fond of sweets, so he asked mother to purchase some from a shop. But his mother refused to buy sweets from that shop because flies were sitting on sweets. After it Kashif asked her to buy sweets from another shop which see-med to be clean. Mother refused on the grounds that she had seen a man sweeping the road along the shop. On asking mother explained that flies and dust carried germs and germs were injurious to health.

Kashif wented to know more about germs. His mother told him that when flies walk on dirty things, the germs stick to their legs. The flies carry those germs to our food. When we eat food, the germs get into our bodies and make us ill. So we should never eat such sweets and food which are non properly covered. She further told Kashif that a great number of diseases are caused by germs. For instant typhoid is caused by flies, Malaria is caused by a kind of mosquito bite. So we should make our surroundings clean and use kerosene oil and D.D.T powder. By doing so we can get rid of diseases. In this way we can preserve our health because health is wealth.

A Letter to Younger Brother Advising Him to Take Interest in His Studies

Examination Hall,

March 16, 2003.

My Dear Brother,

Assalam-o-Alaikum,

I am sorry to tell you that it hurts me to hear from your class teacher that you did not do well in the terminal tests. You have failed in English and Maths. You should be ashamed of it. You know I always showed good results in the same school. All teachers know that you are my brother. They expect good results from you also. I have also come to know that you are often absent from class and have joined a bad company. I am shocked to learn all this.

I therefore warn you to mend your ways. Work hard and win the admiration of your parents and teachers. You should devote much time to your students and make up your deficiency. I hope next time you will show good results.

Yours affectionately

X. Y. Z

Difference between Society and Community

Human beings are social animals. The quality we call humanity can be achieved only through social living, for there is no such things as a person whose personality and behaviour have not developed within some human society. Individual and society are both but what is the exact relationship between the two is taxing problem. Habits of a child closely develop in society and a child develops, and grows according to his social environments. In a few words, man is a social animal both by need, nature and necessity without. Society he cannot advance and it is impossible to have fullest expression of his personality and facilities. He requires society both for his life and also for the sake of good life. Society makes his life pleasant and worth living.
Community distinctly has territorial character and people in a community have common soil as well as shared way of life. In the past, community life was very simple but with the changes in society, changes in the community life are also rapidly coming. These changes are visible in both rural and urban life. There are different elements, which help in the development of community setiment. It may however, be remembered that community is different from society as well as association.
However, following points may clear the concept of society and the community.
Community
1. Population, it is one of the most essential and indispensable characteristics of a community irrespective of the consideration whether people have or have not consicious relations.
2. Nature, A community by nature is discrete as compared with society.
3. Area, For a community area or locality is very essential and that perhaps is the reason that the community has a definite shape.

4. Heterogeneity, A community has compatively rarrow scope for community sentiments and as such it cannot have wide heterogeneity.
5. Group of people living together sharing basic conditions of social life. i-e religion languages (very often).
6. It is smaller than the society which is closely tied and well-knit group.
7. It is more ethnocentric than society. Because its members share sentiments.
8. Definite geographical areas is essential.

9. Community exists within society.
10. In a community one finds that common objectives are less extensive and loosely coordinated. Society
1. Population is of course important but here the population is conditional by a feeling of one men. Thus consitous relations are more important than the mere population for a society.
2. By nature and character society is abstract and we can only feel about society.
3. Society is area less and shapless and for a society area is no consideration. That perhaps is the reason that the people living in distant areas and working in different fields conform society.
4. A society has heterogeneity and because of its wide scope and field can embrace people having different confucts.

5. Society is name of structure of all social relaship. Direct or indirect organised on in organised co operative or antagonistic.
6. It is a larger group based on aware nen or conscious nen of its other member/group set.
7. It is less ethnocentric than community. Its members do no share sentiments.
8. Definite geographical area and locality is not necessary.
9. Society include many communities.
10. On other hand in a developed society common objection are more extensive and closely coordinated.

What is a Project

To put projects into irrespective, you need a definition, most of the time we call any work a project, but Projects actually have a very specific definition. if a set of tasks or work to be done does not meet the strict definition, then it cannot be called a project.

Project is a sequence of unique, complex and connected activities having one or purpose and that must be completed by a specific time, budget and according to a specification.

Unique activities : the project must unique in nature, a project has never happened before and it will never happen again under the same condition, something is always different each time the activities of projet are repeated.. such as a part is delayed, someone is sick , a power failure occurs, these are random events that can happen but we are not sure when, how and with what impact these event will happen.

Complex activities:the activities that can make up the project are not simple, repetitive acts, such as mowing the lawn, painting the house m washing the car, or the loading the delivery truck, they are complex. for example, designing an intuitive user interface to an application system is a complex activity

Connected activities: connectedness implies that there is a logical or technical relationship between pairs of activities. there is an order to the sequence in which the activities that make the project must be completed. they are considered connected because the output  from one activity is he input to another .for example we must design the computer program before we can program it.

One Goal: projects must have a single goal, for exapmle to design an inner-city play ground for Aid to dependent children families. how ever very large or complex projects may be divided into several sub projects, each of which is a projects on its own

Specified Time: projects have a specified completion date. this date can be self imposed by man engagement or externally specified by a customer or government agency.

Within budget: projects also have resource limits, such as limited amount of people, money or machines that are dedicated to the project,. while these resources can be adjusted up or down by management they are considered fixed resources to the project manager. For example, suppose a company has only one web designer a the moment that is the fixed resource that ia available to the project manager

Pakistan Resolution

PREAMBLE

Pakistan Resolution was the turning point in the history of Pakistan.It provides a way to the Muslims,leading to the destination of a complete independence.
ATTITUDE OF HINDUS

Hindus clearly stated that they would not tolerate another community in India by saying:

"India belong to the Hindus and if Muslims wish to live in India,they should follow Hinduism."

The Hindus tried to destroy Muslim identity by introducing Hindi as a medium of education.
CONGRESS OPERATION

The congress neglected the Muslim in every field and supported the Hindus.It did not recognize Muslim as a considerable party in India.In his address Nehru stated that: "There are only two parties in the country,the congress and the british." According of Quaid-e-Azam :

"The sole aim and object of the congress is to annihilate every other organization in the country."
PARTITION PROPOSALS

By 1937,the political conditions of Sub Continent compelled the Muslim political leaders to seriously consider the partition of India.The idea of Indian partition was not a new one,a number of partition proposals had been forwarded previously by many Muslim leaders like Syed Ahmed Shaheed,Mohammad Abdul Qadir,Allama Iqbal,Syed Jamal Uddin Afghani,Abdul Halim Sharar e.t.c.


PROPOSAL GIVEN BY ALLAMA IQBAL

The most reasonable proposal was given by Allama Iqbal.The poet,philosopher,while delivering his presidential address at the annual session of the Muslim League at Allahbad in December 1930 said:

"India is a continent of Human Beings belonging to different languages ,having different religion,therefore,I demand the formation of separate Muslim State for the Muslims of India."
CHAUDRY REHMAT ALI'S SCHEME

Chaudry Rehmat Ali proposed his scheme of partition of India.He declared:

"North of India is Muslim and we shall keep it Muslim.Not only that ,we will make it a Muslim State....?"

He coined the word "Pakistan" in which 'P' stands for Punjab,'A' stands for Afghanistan,(N.W.F.P) 'K' for Kashmir ,'S' for Sindh and 'tan' stands for Baluchistan.The word Pakistan means "The land of Pure".
THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

In 1940,the annual session of Muslim League was held at Lahore in Minto Park (Iqbal Park).Under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam and a resolution was passed on 23rd March,1940.The Resolution was moved by Bengal Chief Minister Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Chaudry Khaliq-uz-Zaman.It stated that:

"No Constitution plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is designed on the following basic principles,viz,that geographically contiguous units are demo crated into regions which should be so constituted,with such territorial adjustment as may necessary,that the areas in which Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India,should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign...adequate,effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities for the protection of their religion ,cultural,economic,political,administrative and other rights."
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS OF QUA ID-E-AZAM

The Quaid-e-Azam delivered a historic address at this moment highlighting the distinct national character of the Muslims of India.He said:

"Musalmans are not a minority at is commonly known and understood.One has only got to look around even today,According to the British map of India,out of 11 provinces,4 provinces where the Muslims dominate more or less are functioning not with standing the decision of the Congress High Command to non cooperate and prepare for civil disobedience .Musalmans are nation according to any definition of a nation and they must have their homelands,their territory and their state.We wish to live in peace and harmony with our neighbors as a free and independent people.We wish our people to develop to the fullest our spiritual,cultural,economic,social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own ideals and according to the genius of our people."
MUSLIMS ACCEPTANCE AND HINDUS REJECTION OF THE RESOLUTION

The Resolution was unanimously accepted by the Muslims who had assembled the meeting plan in a large number.The Hindu readers and newspaper raise a hue and cry after the Resolution.They refused it and referred to the partition as "Vivisection of Motherland".

Gandhi said that :

"Dividing India was like dividing a cow."

Quaid-e-Azam warned the Hindus that:

"If the Hindus tried to get the whole of India they would loose the whole,but if they gave one-third to the Muslims they would get two-thirds."
IMPORTANCE OF PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

The Pakistan Resolution is a land mark in the history of the Muslims of India.This famous Resolution results in the creation of Pakistan.The acceptance of Pakistan Resolution strengthened the Two Nation Theory which was the basis of Muslim struggle for Independence.


CONCLUSION

Pakistan Resolution was a demand for the protection and safeguard of the national identity of the Muslims.With the passage of Pakistan Resolution,the Muslims began to acquire new hope and confidence in their destiny.The Resolution infused high spirits among the Muslims who were now determined to fight to the last minute for the accomplishment of Pakistan.

Two nation Thoery

Meaning of Two Nation Theory

The Two Nation Theory in its simplest way means the cultural,political,religious,economic and social dissimilarities between the two major communities.Hindus and Muslims of the Sub Continent.These difference of out look ,in fact,were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of India into two independent states.
THE BASIS OF THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN

The Two Nation Theory was the basis of the struggle for creation of Pakistan which held that Hindus and Muslims are two separate Nations.They in spite of living together for centuries could not forget their individual cultures and civilization.Al-Beruni recorded his ideas in 1001 A.D in his famous book "Kitab-ul-Hind" as:

"The Hindus society maintained this peculiar character over the centuries.The two socities,Hindus and Muslims,like two streams have sometimes touched but never merged,each following its separate course."

There are a few factors which split the inhabitants of the Sub Continent into two Nations.Let us examine each of them separately.
1.Religious Differences

The Hindus and Muslims belong to different religions.Islam preaches Tawheed (oneness of Allah) and believes in equality of man before law.Muslims are the believers of God,The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) the Holy Book Quran and hold a cohesive approach towards life.

Hinduism,on the other hand is based on the concept of multiple Gods.Their society follows a caste system and is divided into four classes and have a very narrow approach towards life.
2.Hindu Nationalism

A number of Hindu nationalist movements,which emerged from time to time in the Indian history ,added fuel to the fire by playing up the tension and antagonism which already existed between the two communities.

The Hindu nationalist leaders totally ignored the great contribution made by the Muslims in the indian society by way of promoting education and other social activities.Their writings and ideas flared up the communal discord between Hindus and Muslims to further pollute the political condition.
3.Cultural Differences

Muslim followed the Islamic culture while Hindus inherited a self build culture.The Hindus burnt their dead bodies while Muslims burred them.Hindus considered the 'Mother cow' as a sacred animal and worshiped it while Muslims slaughtered it.they performed 'sati' while Muslims abhorred this tradition .The Hindus and Muslims did not intermarry nor they inter-dine.
4.Social Differences

The two communities of the Sub Continent differ in their social life as well.The clothes,the foods,the household utensils,the layout of homes,the words of salutation,the gestures and every thing about them was different and immediately pointed to their distinctive origin.
5.Economics Differences

After 1857,the Muslim economic was crushed and all trade policies were framed in such a way so as to determent the Muslim condition .They were thrown out of Government services and the their estates and properties were confiscated,while the Hindus were provided with ample opportunities to progress economically.
6.Educational Differences

The Hindus had advanced in the educational field because they quickly and readily took the english education.While Muslims did not receive modern education which heavily affected their economic conditions.
7.Political Differences

The political differences between the Hindus and Muslims have played an important role in the developement and evolution of Two Nation Theory.
(i) Hindi Urdu Controversy

In 1867,Hindus demande that Urdu should be written in Hindi Script instead of Persian script.This created another gap between Hindus and Muslims.
(ii) Congress Attitude

The Indian national Congress was founded in 1885.It claimed to represent all communities of India but oppressed all Muslim ideas and supported the Hindus.
(iii) Partition of Bengal

In 1905,the partition of Bengal ensured a number of political benefits for the Muslims,but the Hindus launched an agitation against the partition and partition was annulled in 1911.
8.Language

The Muslimsand Hindus wrote and spoke two different languages .The language of the former was Urdu and it was written in Arabic Script.On the other hand ,the Hindi language was spoken by Hindus and it was written in Sanskrit.Urdu and Hindi language had the difference in writing,thoughts of poetry,arts,painting and words of music.Even this small difference lead to a stirring conflict between the two nations.
Sir syed Ahmed Khan-The Pioneer of Two Nation Theory

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan,the pioneer of two nation theory,used the word 'two nation' for Hindus and Muslims after being concinced of the Hindus and Congress hatred,hostility and prejudice for the Muslims.

The entire freedom movement revolved around the two nation theory which was introduced by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.He considered all those lived in India as one nation and was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.Speaking at the meeting of Indian Association he said:

"I look to both Hindus and Muslims with the same eyes and consider them as my own eyes.By the word 'Nation' I mean only Hindus and Muslims and nothing else,We,Hindus and Muslims live together on the same soil under the same government.Our intrests and problems are common,and therfore,I consider the two factions as one nation."

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan did his best to make the Muslims realize their differences ewith the Hindus with regard to religions,social and language national and international identity and for this purpose he diverted attention of the Indian Muslims towards a new idea of "Two Nation" or "Two entities."

After Hindi-Urdu controversy Sir Syed felt that it was not possible for Hindus and Muslims to progress as a single nation.He said:

" I am convinced now that Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation as their religion and way of life was quite distinct from each other."
TWO NATION THEORY IN THE VIEW OF ALLAMA IQBAL

Allama Iqbal was the first important figure who propounded the idea of separate homeland on the basis of two nation theory.He firmly believed in the separate identity of the Muslims as a nation and suggested that there would be no possibility of peace in the country unless and untill they were recognized as a nation.In the annual session of Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930,he said:

"India is a continent of human beings belonging to different languages and professing different religions...I,therefore,demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in the best interests of the Muslims of India and Islam."
QUAID-E-AZAM'S STATEMENT ON TWO NATION THEORY

The most clear and emphatic exposition is found in Jinnah's statement and speeches.He expounded the two nation theory in such detail that most Muslims and even some Hindus came to believe in its truth.He declared:

" Muslims are not a minority,They are one nation by every definition of the word nation.By all canons of international law we are a nation."

Quaid-e-Azam reiterated that Hindus and Muslims could ever evolve a common nationality was on idle dream.They are a totally different nation .They have an unbridgeable gulf between them and they stand miles apart in regards to their ideals,culture and religion.In 1973,he said:

"Hindustan is neither one country,nor its inhabitants one nation.This is Sub Continent which consist of many nations of which the Hindus and Muslims are two major nations."
CONCLUTION

The Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of Hindu society.They also came to realize the above mentioned differences between them and the Hindus and hence demanded separate electorate on the ground that they were different nation from Hindus.

Hence it is right to say that this theory i.e two nation theory is the basis of the creation of Pakistan because without this as a base,Pakistan would not come into being on 14th August ,1947,and we would not be breathing freely in this open air of Pakistan.

14 points of Quaid-e-Azam

INTRODUCTION

In 1928,an All Parties Conference was convened to solve the constitutional problems of India.A committee was set up under Pandit Lal Nehru.That committee prepared a report which is known as "Nehru Report".This report demanded "Dominion Status" for India.Separate electorates were refused and the reservation of seats for the Muslims of Bengal and Punjab was rejected.In this report,not a single demand of the Muslims was upheld.

Since Nehru Report was the last word from Hindus therefore Mr.Jinnah was authorized to draft in concise term the basis of any future constitution that was to be devised for India.Originally these demands were Fourteen in number and so they popularly came to be known as "Jinnah's Fourteen Points".

In March 1929 ,at the annual session of All india Muslim league,he declared his famous fourteen points.
JINNAH'S FOURTEEN POINTS -1929
1.Federal System

The form of the future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers rested in the provinces.
2.Provincial Autonomy

A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
3.Representation of Minorities

All legislative in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principles of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
4.Number of Muslim Representative

In the central legislative ,Muslims representative shall be not less than one -third.
5.Separate Electorates

Representative of communal groups shall continue to be by means of separate electorates as at present provided it shall be open to any community,at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of joint electorate.
6.Muslim Majority Provinces

Any territorial re-distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way,effect the Muslim majority in Punjab,Bengal and N.W.F.P.
7.Religious Liberty

Full religious Liberty,liberty of belief,worship and observance,association and education shall be guaranted to all the communication.
8.Three-Fourth Representation

No bill or resolution shall be passed in any legislative or any other elected body if three-fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill.
9.Separation of Sind

Sind should be separated from Bombay Presidency.
10.Introduction of Reforms in N.W.F.P and Baluchistan

Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan on the same footing as in other provinces.
11.Government Services

Muslims should be given adequate share along with other Indians in the services of State.
12.Protection of Muslim's culture and Language

The constitution should embody adequate safeguard for the protection of Muslim culture,language,religion and civilization.
13.One-Third Muslim Ministers

No cabinet,either central or provincial be formed.Without being a proportion of at least one-third Muslim Ministers.
14.Constitution

No change shall be made in the constitution of state except with the concurrence of State constituting the Indian Federation.

The reasonable and moderate demands contained in the fourteen points,were rejected by the Hindus leaders which considerably widened the gulf between the two communities.
IMPORTANCE OF JINNAH'S FOURTEEN POINTS

A comparison of the Nehru Report with the quaid-e-Azam's Fourteen Points shows that the political gap between the Muslims and the Hindus had really widened.Fourteen points of Quaid-e-Azam became principles for Muslims of India.These points made it clear to Hindus and British Government that Muslims of India.Those points made it clear to Hindus and British Government that Muslims wanted their own identity without influence by Hindus.Fourteen Points not only revived Muslim League but also directed them on a new way.These points prepared the Muslims of India for a bold step to struggle for freedom.

The importance of these points can be judged by the fact that these points were presented in the Round Table Conference of 1930.

As a result,these points became the demands of the Muslims and greatly influenced the Muslims thinking for the next two decaded till the establishment of Pakistan in 1947.

Salient features of Pakistan Culture

DEFINITION OF CULTURE

Culture may be defined as behaviour perculiar to human beings,together with material objects used.Culture consists of language,ideas,beliefs,customs,codes,institution,t ools,techniques,works of arts,ceremonies and so on.According to Allama Iqbal:

"Culture encompasses all the mental,Spiritual and Physical activities of a Nation.It includes the basic beliefs and faith,values and literature ,aart and architecture,music and mode of dress,manners and customs prevalent in a given Society."
PAKISTANI CULTURE IS A ISLAMIC CULTURE

Pakistan is an ideological Islamic State.Its very existence is due to Islam,so the Pakistani culture is primarily based on the Islamic way of life.All other ingredients of culture are inspired by Islam.Pakistani culture is highlighted by its grandeur,simplicity,firm convictions and noble deeds and ideas.
SALIENT FEATURES OF PAKISTANI CULTURE

The main characteristics of Pakistani culture are as follows:
1.Religious Uniformity

Pakistan came into existence to provide its people a system of life based on Islam.The people ,in spite of some differences of languages,customs and traditions commonly follow one religion of Islam.This is the religion,which is practiced by all people of Pakistan.
2.Language

A number of languages are spoken in Pakistan.Some of them are Punjabi,Sindhi,Pushto and Baluchi.But Urdu is spoken and understand in all parts of Pakistan.Being the official language,it is the media of communication between all regions of Pakistan.
3.Literatur and Poetry

Literature is an important aspects of our cultural life.Most of our poets reflect Islamic code and trend in their poetry.They gave the message of love and brotherhood.Simlarity of thoughts amongst poets and writers of all regions is an important factor of our cultural life.
4.Dress and Diet

Dress is an important manifestation of culture.The regional dresses of Pakistan under go changes in the light of local traditions,economic conditions,way of living and wealth in the region.But in all provinces people generally wear Shalwar Qameez.

Our eating habits,foods and social etquette are stricktly in conformity with Islamic principles.
5.Mixed Culture

Pakistani culture is a mixed culture although majority of people are Muslims by birth and faith .But there is great influence of Hindu and British culture on the present Pakistani society.
6.Male Dominated Society

In Pakistani culture the male member of the family enjoys the key position.Family is headed by a male member and in most cases,he is the soul sources of income for other members of the family.
7.Arts and Architecture

The iconoclasm of Islam has given a characteristic form and pattern in the use of elwgant designs,based on geometric figures and floral forms borrowed from nature.The Shah Jahan Masjid,Shalimar Garden,Badshahi Masjid,Shahi Qila and many such graceful buildings are a living proof of the exellent Mughal architecture.
8.Handicrafts

Embroidery,Leather works,glazed pottery,wood work,carpet making,metal crafts,ivory are the essential parts of our culture.Pakistani craftsmen are considered as the best in their craftsmanship.They are known for the high quality works which is very popular in foreign countries.
9.Recreational Activities-Sports

The recreational activities all over the Pakistan are common.The games like wrestling,hockey ,cricket,football,squash,Kabaddi etc are popular in every part of our country.These games reflect our cultural identity.
10.Education

Education contributes a great deal in developing national character.Educational system plays a vital role in the formation of culture,unity and solidarity of a nation.it is,therefore,important that the entire syllabi right from the lower to higher level should be placed in accordance with the ideology of Pakistan.
11.Religious Festivals

Festivals play an important part of our culture.Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious festivals .They are celebrated with great happiness throughout the country.
12.Ulema,Mushaikh and Sufi Poets

Ulema,Mashaikh and Sufi Poets occupy an honoured place in our cultural aspect of life.Sufis like Lal Shahbaz,Data Ganj Baksh,Shah Abdul Lateef,Sachal Sarmast,Hazrat Sultan Bahu and Waris Shah rendered meritorious services for the spread of Islam in the Sub Continent.
CONCLUTION

Culture which includes religion,literature art,architecture,dresses,music,manners and customs has its roots in the Islamic culture.Islam has described the rights and duties of every individual.Even in drinking,eating and dressing,we have to observe certain rules prescribed by Islam.So it may be said that Pakistani culture represents the true picture of Islamic culture.

By Car Across Europe (Questions and Answers)

Q.1: Why it is easy to reach the continent of Europe from England?

Ans: It is easy to reach the continent of Europe from England because after crossing English Channel one can see or do variety of things and it is also not expensive to cross it.

Q.2: How students often travel abroad?

Ans: Students often travel abroad by bicycle or on foot. Sometimes they ask motorists for a free lift.

Q.3: How did older people often travel abroad?

Ans: The older people often travel abroad by bus or train.

Q.4: What are the advantages of taking private cars?

Ans: There are lot of advantages of travelling by private cars, one can travel far and wide in search of enjoyment and novelty, see more with less inconvenience and one do not worry about catching buses and trains or finding porters and taxis.

Q.5: Why were Roger and Sheila going to Capri?

Ans: Roger and Sheila were going to Capri on sentimental pilgrimage. Because five years ago they had spent their honeymoon there and now they wanted to see the place again.

Q.6: What preparation did Roger make?

Ans: Before setting on their journey to Capri Roger obtained passport, traveller’s cheques and necessary documents for his car.

Q.7: How did they cross English Channel?

Ans: They crossed English Channel by a car-ferry.

Q.8: What happened on the board ship?

Ans: They had lunch on the board, Roger bought some tax free cigarettes and then they entered into conversation with other passengers about the route they intended to follow across Europe.

Q.9: What did they do when they left Dunkirk?

Ans: Whey they left Dunkirk they drove off the ferry into France and were very soon on their way to Belgium.

Q.10: Where did they go after Brussels?

Ans: After Brussels they went to the Luxembourg.

Q.11: Which route they take through Germany?

Ans: From Trier a famous village of Germany they reached Koblenz. From there they turned the south along the River Rhine all the way through black forest to the town of Basle on Swiss-German border.

Q.12: Why did Roger want to drive across Switzerland?

Ans: Roger wanted to drive across Switzerland because he wanted to enter Italy by Simplon pass on the way to Melon.

Q.13: How did they get from Basel to Venice?

Ans: From Basel they went East ward to Innsbruck in Austria and then over the Brenner pass to Venice.

Q.14: Why is Venice unique?

Ans: Venice is unique in the world because it has canals in place of roads and streets.

Q.15: What was their route from Venice to Naples?

Ans: From Venice they went to Naples by route of Florence and Rome.

The Abbot of Canterbury (Summary)

The Abbot of Canterbury was a rich bishop. He was leading a pompous life. He kept a better house as the King himself. He kept a large train of servants who waited upon him with velvet coats and gold chains. At that time the King John ruled over England. He was jealous of the Abbot of Canterbury and thought that he got his wealth by unfair means. He therefore wanted to punish him, so he called the Abbot and he charged him with treason. The Abbot pleaded not guilty and said that he was spending his own money. At this King put him three questions and declared that the Abbot would have to lose his life, if he failed to answer the questions. King gave him three weeks to answers these questions.

The Abbot was upset. He went to Oxford and Cambridge and to all the wise men of the land. But no one could tell him how to answer the questions. At last the Abbot’s shepherd who resembled him went before the King.

The King put following three question before him:

1. What was his (King’s) worth with his crown of gold?

2. How soon might he ride the whole world about?

3. What was he thinking?

To first question the shepherd replied that Jesus Christ was sold among the Jews for thirty pence, so his worth was only twenty nice pence. To the second question the shepherd replied that if he rode with the sun he would travel round the world in 24 hours. To the third question, he replied that he was thinking him Abbot of Canterbury but he was his poor shepherd and came to beg pardon for the Abbot and himself. King John was very happy at this jest and granted a pension of four nobles per week for the shepherd and pardoned the Abbot of Canterbury.

Lucy Gray - William Wordsworth : Summary and Comments

Sir William Wordsworth

Lucy Gray in one of the finest literary ballad written by William Wordsworth in blank verses. Below is original text and detailed summary of the poem.

Original Text of the Poem:

Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray:

And, when I crossed the wild,

I chanced to see at break of day

The solitary child.

No mate, no comrade Lucy knew;

She dwelt on a wide moor,

--The sweetest thing that ever grew

Beside a human door!

You yet may spy the fawn at play,

The hare upon the green;

But the sweet face of Lucy Gray

Will never more be seen.

"To-night will be a stormy night--

You to the town must go;

And take a lantern, Child, to light

Your mother through the snow."

"That, Father! will I gladly do:

'Tis scarcely afternoon--

The minster-clock has just struck two,

And yonder is the moon!"

At this the Father raised his hook,

And snapped a faggot-band;

He plied his work;--and Lucy took

The lantern in her hand.

Not blither is the mountain roe:

With many a wanton stroke

Her feet disperse the powdery snow,

That rises up like smoke.

The storm came on before its time:

She wandered up and down;

And many a hill did Lucy climb:

But never reached the town.

The wretched parents all that night

Went shouting far and wide;

But there was neither sound nor sight

To serve them for a guide.

At day-break on a hill they stood

That overlooked the moor;

And thence they saw the bridge of wood,

A furlong from their door.

They wept--and, turning homeward, cried,

"In heaven we all shall meet;"

--When in the snow the mother spied

The print of Lucy's feet.

Then downwards from the steep hill's edge

They tracked the footmarks small;

And through the broken hawthorn hedge,

And by the long stone-wall;

And then an open field they crossed:

The marks were still the same;

They tracked them on, nor ever lost;

And to the bridge they came.

They followed from the snowy bank

Those footmarks, one by one,

Into the middle of the plank;

And further there were none!

--Yet some maintain that to this day

She is a living child;

That you may see sweet Lucy Gray

Upon the lonesome wild.

O'er rough and smooth she trips along,

And never looks behind;

And sings a solitary song

That whistles in the wind.

Summary and Development of Thought in the Poem:

The poem Lucy Gray was written by William Wordsworth based upon a real account of death of a little girl narrated to him by his sister Dorothy. In the poem the poet portraits imagery of a little solitary girl who lived in a house in valley with her father and mother. As she did not have any friend, her most of time was spent in playing alone or helping her parents. Wordsworth further progress by adding that one can get a chance to see a fawn or a rabbit while passing through those valleys (which are usually hard to trace) but you will never be able to see the innocent face of Lucy Gray.

Now Wordsworth takes us back to the sad incident. It was an afternoon and Lucy was at home with her father. Her mother had gone to the town. Her father took his hook and started to pile bundle and instructed Lucy to take the lantern and bring her mother safe before evening because they were anticipation storm. She left for the town but against expected time, the storm arose earlier and Lucy lost the way. She searched for the way back to home but could never find. Her mother came back home. Worried her parents explored the entire valley whole night to catch a sight of Lucy but she was nowhere found.

At the break of the day her parents found patterns of Lucy’s small feet in the snow. They started following those footprints which led them to bridge of the wood which was only a furlong far from there house and after that prints disappeared. It was indication that Lucy had died. Her parents lament for her. The dearest child of the nature was gone. But it is still in belief that Lucy is alive and sings her solitary song in the valley.

Noticeable in this poem is that Wordsworth has not stresses upon death of Lucy but after her death her fusion with the nature. He has tries to associate boundaries of birth and death by this beautiful and calamitous ballad. Wordsworth as a poet of nature, in this poem has associated the action of death with the nature. After the death of Lucy also it is believed that she is alive and her song whistles in the air in the valley as if she has become part of the nature. Beautiful imagery, similes are quite seen as the very flair of William Wordsworth.

Comments and Critical Appreciation of the Poem:

Lucy Gray was written by Sir William Wordsworth in 1799 and published in the second edition of ‘Lyrical Ballad’, collection of poems by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1800. The poem states story of a little girl named Lucy Gray who died early on a story night in countryside. She lived somewhere in western countryside with her parents. The clue of living in Western Countryside is given in lines ‘The minster-clock has just struck two,/And yonder is the moon!" moon is visible during day time there. She had a small family and no friends. As a solitary child’ she had no mate or someone to talk, ply or share.

Poem Lucy Gray starts with the reference to a popular story of Lucy Gray. Wordsworth has represented Lucy as a child of nature. We can notice in the poem Lucy perhaps, often used to help her parents in small house works because when her mother goes out of the town, her father sends her to fetch her mother. But when storm comes before expected time, Lucy lost her way keep searching for the right path and mysteriously dies. Death of an innocent lonely child hits reader deep and leaves an impact of sorrow. In the end of the poem the poet takes help of supernatural theory to keep Lucy alive in hearts. People still believe that Lucy is not dead and her spirit roams and sings the songs which whistles in the air. This supernatural theme indicates how strongly Lucy was attached to her town and singing her solitary song implies how lonely she was. Tragic end of the poem leaves an everlasting impact on the readers. 

The ballad is written lyrically. A scenic view stands in front of the eyes while reading the poem and imagery is widely used but nowhere seems to be in the excess. Unfortunate death of the little girl in the end of the poem and then keeping her alive in the hearts with the help of supernatural elements is the very own style of Wordsworth.

Sonnet composed upon Westminster Bridge (Summary)

Once William Words worth visited the Westminster Bridge in the morning. He viewed the city of London from this bridge and was very much impressed by its beauty. He says that city of London looks very beautiful in the morning. The person who does not enjoy such an impressive scene is a dull one. The ships, the towers, domes, churches and green fields present a very beautiful scene in the morning. There is complete silence. The river Thames flows very smoothly. All the activities of the people are suspended and this city seems asleep at this hour of morning.

What are International Relations?

International relations refers to the collective interactions of the international community, which includes individual nations and states, inter-governmental organizations such as the United Nations, non-governmental organizations like Doctors Without Borders, multinational corporations, and so forth. it is the branch of political science. The term is also used to refer to a branch of political science which focuses on the study of these interactions. As an academic discipline, international relations encompasses a wide range of academic fields, ranging from history to environmental studies, and there are a number of areas of specific specialty, for academics who are interested in them.

The concept of international relations on some level is probably quite old, given that humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. However, many people agree that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. Organizations like the Dutch East India company were among the first multinational corporations, for example, while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern.

As one might imagine, international relations can get incredibly complex. It is also sometimes known as “foreign relations,” and specialists in this field do things like staffing diplomatic agencies abroad, providing consultation to businesses which are considering establishing branches overseas, and assisting charitable non-governmental organizations with their missions. Many specialists pick a particular region of the world to focus on, as the language and etiquette of international relations is incredibly varied, depending on whom one deals with.

In the academic world, the study of international relations encompasses the history of this immensely varied field, along with studies of modern foreign relations. Students often examine specific relationships to learn more about them, and they may look at emerging global issues as an ongoing part of their education. Many people in the field of international relations also spend time abroad, studying foreign relations from a different angle and performing specific regional research.

Whether one works in international relations or studies it, one should expect to examine things like economics, history, sociology, anthropology, law, nationalism, development, human rights issues, psychology, geography, global studies, and even philosophy. Many institutions all over the world offer training for people who wish to specialize in this field, along with cooperative study agreements abroad which help to expand the horizons of students.

What is Political Science

Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior. Political scientists "see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of politics works." Political science intersects with other fields; including economics, law, sociology, history, anthropology, public administration, public policy, national politics, international relations, comparative politics, psychology, political organization, and political theory. Although it was codified in the 19th century, when all the social sciences were established, political science has ancient roots; indeed, it originated almost 2,500 years ago with the works of Plato and Aristotle^.

Political science is commonly divided into three distinct sub-disciplines which together constitute the field:

• political philosophy,
• comparative politics and
• international relations.

Political philosophy is the reasoning for an absolute normative government, laws and similar questions and their distinctive characteristics. Comparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations.

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research and model building.
"As a discipline" political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, "lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities." Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separate School or College of Arts and Sciences per se, political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of Humanities or Liberal Arts. Whereas classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are also marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state, along with the study of classical thought, and as such share a greater deal of terminology with sociologists (e.g. structure and agency).

Role and Origin of SAARC

South Asia Association of regional co-operation (SAARC) in December 1985 the heads of slates and governments of seven South Asian countries viz. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Srilanka held a summit meeting at Dhaka. After due deliberations they unanimously decided to set up secretariat and issued a declarations for a creation of SAARC. The declaration stated the objective of association as promotion of welfare of people, improvement in the quality of the life of people, acceleration of economic growth, promotion of collective self reliance promotion of mutual trust and understanding, promotion of collaboration in economic social cultural, technical and scientific fields, strengthening of co-operation with other developing countries and themselves besides co-operation with regional and international organization with similar objectives. This co-operation amongst the members was to be based on respect for principles of sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, political independence non-interference in internal affairs of other states of mutual benefit. It was further asserted that co-operation among the member state shall not be a substitute for bilateral and multilateral co-operation but shall complement them and it shall not be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations, further decisions at all levels shall be taken on the basic of consensus and the bilateral and contentions issues shall be excluded from the deliberations.

The declaration stated that the state of government shall meet annually and Council of Ministers consisting of foreign ministers of the member states shall be constituted to formulate policies, to review the progress of co-operation to establish additional mechanism and to decide on matters of general interest. This Council of Ministers shall be assisted by foreign secretaries. The declaration also envisaged the setting up of technical committee composing of representatives of member states for implementing coordinating and monitoring of programmes and Action Committee for projects involving more than two member states. The declaration stated that a secretarial for the association shall be established at the appropriate time. The expenses of the organisation shall be met out of voluntary contributions of members.

The formation of saarc evoked mixed reaction. King of Bhutan described it as “a manifestation of our collective wisdom and political will be bring about meaningful regional co-operation in spite of the differences on foreign policy and Security perspectives”. On the other hand President Zia of Pakistan expressed apprehensions about the dominant position of India which could deter the fulfilment of the objectives and ideas of saarc. Similar misgivings arose due to the size and population of India. Therefore it is desirable that India should try to allay these feelings by demonstrate ratings both by words and deeds that she will always by ready to enter into constructive and mutually beneficial co-operation with such countries as may seek it.

Despite these misgivings it cannot be denied that the formation of saarc was a significant step forward because it could stimulate regional cooperation through collective approach and action. No doubt the seven countries had different political system. Ideologies and links but they were also best with political problems of growth and development which encouraged them to co-operate with each other and evolve a common approach for development.

The United Nations (Questions and Answers)

Q.1: When were the United Nations Organization founded and (briefly) what inspired its foundation?

Ans: The United Nations Organization was founded in April 1945. inspiration of its foundation was the desire of the people all over then world for peace because people all over the world were disgusted with miseries brought about by the second world war.

Q.2: How successful has the United Nations Organization been, so for in preventing local wars?

Ans: Preventing was is difficult. It is a part of high politics. The United Nations succeeded in a few cases in bringing peace where there was no peace. But in great many cases it has failed to prevent local wars.

Q.3: What part of the work of the United Nations appears, so far to have yielded the most promising results?

Ans: The work of the United Nations in solving social and economic problems has yielded the most promising results.

Q.4: What are the more important differences between the General Assembly and the Security Council?

Ans: The General Assembly consist of all members of the United Nations while the Security Council consists of fifteen members. Five of these are permanent members those are China, France, UK, Russia and the USA of the other ten three each year are elected by General Assembly for two year terms. The General Assembly elects its president for each session while Security Council works as its cabinet. The General Assembly members have no veto power while five permanent member of Security Council have veto power.

Q.5: What is the designation of the Chief Officer of the United Nations, for how long is he appointed and by whom is the appointed?

Ans: The designation of the Chief Officer of the United Nations is Secretary General. He is appointed for a period of five years and is elected by General Assembly with the approval of the Security Council.

Q.6: How large staffs are employed by the Secretariat and where does it work?

Ans: The UN Secretariat has staff of about 3500. They work at the head quarters of UN.

Q.7: What is the function of International Bank?

Ans: International Bank lends money to member nations for carrying though some work of public importance and usefulness.

Q.8: Who do the initials W H O stand for and what is the function of this organization?

Ans: The initials W H O stand for World Health Organization. W H O advises member countries on public health and on the control of diseases.

Q.9: What do the initials F A O stands for and what is the function of this organization?

Ans: The initials F A O stand for Food and Agriculture Organization. It advises member nations on the ways to enhance production in agriculture sector.

Q.10: What is the function of UNESCO?

Ans: The function of UNESCO is to advance education, science and culture in order to promote human welfare.

Q.11: Who do the initials of UNICEF stand for and what is the function of this organization?

Ans: The initials of UNICEF stand for United Nations International children’s Emergency Fund. It specializes in the relief of children.

Q.12: What were the conditions which obliged the people of the world to found U N O?

Ans: During second world war millions of people had been killed and wounded. The property worth of millions of pounds has been destroyed. Millions of people had been made homeless. Millions suffered from poverty, hunger and disease. That was the time when man wanted peace, good will and brother hood on the earth. These were the condition which obliged the people of the world to found U N O.